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> Home Bridger-Teton National Forest The Impact of Snowmobiles on the Bridger-Teton National Forest: Considerations for Winter Travel Plans
By
Forrest G McCarthy Over the past two decades a significant increase in the popularity of snowmobiling and improved technology has greatly expanded the reach of snowmobiles and their associated environmental impacts. Snowmobiles are multiple impact machines that damage air and water quality, area wildlife, natural peace and quiet, public health, and visitor safety. This report is intended to educate the reader on the environmental impacts of snowmobiling, the level of use occurring with Bridger-Teton National Forest, and the legal considerations of managing snowmobiling. While research on the environmental impacts of snowmobiling has been ongoing for over forty years, the recent controversy over snowmobiling in neighboring Yellowstone National Park has generated new information. This data is condensed in this report along with relevant research from other regions. The legal implications of these impacts are reviewed. By summarizing this large body of information on the environmental impacts of snowmobiles and associated legal considerations, it is hoped that personnel at the Bridger-Teton National Forest will be better equipped to protect natural resources and uphold federal laws. Also available in Microsoft Word Document
Wildlife Disturbance Conflicts with Other Recreationists
Legal Considerations Located in Western Wyoming, the Bridger-Teton is the second largest National Forest outside of Alaska. The Bridger-Teton, which stretches south from Yellowstone National Park along the west side of the continental divide, comprises a large part of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Within its boundaries lie the entirety of the Gros Ventre, Wyoming, and Salt River mountain ranges along with large sections of the Absaroka, Teton, Snake River, and Wind River mountain ranges. The Bridger-Teton includes pristine watersheds and immense wild lands. The primary tree species include lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, aspen and white bark pine. Willows, grasses, and sagebrush are found in the lower altitudes, while alpine meadows are common above timberline. Wildlife is abundant. Elk, moose, mule deer, bighorn sheep, bison, coyote, wolverine, marmot, pronghorn, bobcat, black bear, red fox, and mountain lion are but a few the 75 species of mammals known to exist in the forest. Four species of native cutthroat trout inhabit its streams and rivers. Over 355 species of birds including: bald eagles, golden eagles, osprey, trumpeter swans, sandhill cranes, and red tail hawks have been sighted. Threatened and endangered species found within the Bridger-Teton include grizzly bears, wolves, lynx, and peregrine falcons. The Bridger-Teton National Forest is massive with immense ecological importance. Comprised of over 3.4 million acres, the Bridger-Teton National Forest contains 1.2 million acres of designated wilderness where snowmobiling is not allowed. Several large areas of non-wilderness are closed to snowmobiles to protect wintering wildlife. In addition to the 545 miles of groomed snowmobile trails, over 2 million acres of the Bridger-Teton are open to unrestricted riding. It is estimated that there are 340,200 annual snowmobile visits to the Bridger-Teton National Forest (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). A 2001 survey of resident, non-resident, and guided snowmobilers in Wyoming revealed that on average snowmobilers ride 69.7 to 92 miles per visit (McCanlus et. al., 2001). It can be deducted that each winter over 27 million miles of snowmobiling occurs within the Bridger-Teton National Forest. Snowmobiles are vehicles intended for travel primarily on snow, driven by a moving track or tracks in contact with the snow, and steered by a ski or skis in contact with the snow. Some modern snowmobiles are capable of speeds exceeding 100 mph. Snowmobiling is one of the fastest growing segments of the motorized recreation industry (Blue Water Network, 2002). As to historical snowmobile use, attempts to build over-the snow machines date back to the 1920’s (Ingham, 2000). In 1935, a utilitarian snowmobile that could carry twelve people was developed for emergency transport (ISMA, 2006) and the timber industry also made use of an early snowmobile. Not until the 1950s, however, with the invention of small gas engines, did snowmobiles come into use for recreational purposes. By the 1970s, a number of small manufacturers were building snowmobiles. Honda made a prototype machine in 1973 called the White Fox that had a 178 cc two-stroke engine and weighed 227 pounds (Ingham, 2000). Until the 1990s, snowmobiles were generally restricted to packed trails and roads as the earlier machines would easily become bogged down in deep snow. However, there is anecdotal evidence of snowmobiles traversing sections of the high Absaroka and Teton crest over firm snow during spring time as early as the late 1970s (Turiano, 2008). In the mid-1990s, the development of the “powder sled” vastly changed the pattern of snowmobile use. As stated by the International Snowmobile Manufacturer’s Association, “today’s snowmobiles bear little resemblance to earlier models” (ISMA, 2006). For example, the 2006 Ski-Doo Mach Z Adrenaline has a 1000 cc engine, weighs 529 pounds and can reach 101 mph in a quarter mile (Ski-Doo, 2006). The manufacturer calls it “the all you can eat powder buffet” (Ski-Doo, 2006). The most powerful snowmobiles today have from 120- to 150-horsepower engines. This is more power than many automobiles (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). Snowmobiles typically weigh up to 600 pounds, and many can travel at speeds in excess of 100 miles per hour (Rivers and Menlove 2006). National participation in winter recreation is steadily growing. Government surveys put the number of snowmobile participants in the U.S. in 1982-83 at 5.3 million (USFS, 2000). Prior to that time, snowmobiling was not even included in the surveys, the first of which was conducted in 1960 (USFS, 1962). The most recent survey, conducted in 2004, estimates that 11.9 million people snowmobile annually in the United States (USFS, 2004). Snowmobiles cause significant damage to land cover through direct physical injury as well as indirectly through snow compaction. Impacts on soil and vegetation include retarded growth, erosion, and physical damage (Baker and Bithmann, 2005). These impacts are exacerbated on steep slopes (Stangl, 1999) or in areas with inadequate snow cover (Stangl, 1999; Baker and Bithmann, 2005). This erosion can lead to increased soil runoff resulting in sedimentation and turbidity in the immediate area and throughout the watershed (Stangl, 1999). When snowmobiles are riding over the snow, abrasion and breakage of seedlings, shrubs, and other exposed vegetation is common (Stangl, 1999). Neumann and Merriam (1972) showed that direct mechanical effects by snowmobiles on vegetation at and above snow surface can be severe. After only a single pass by a snowmobile, more than 78% of the saplings on the trail were damaged, and nearly 27% of them were damaged seriously enough to cause a high probability of death. Young conifers were found to be extremely susceptible to damage from snowmobiles. Vegetation in bog habitats is also highly susceptible to damage from snowmobiles (Stangl, 1999). Snow compaction from snowmobiles can lower soil temperatures and reduces the survival of plants and soil microbes (Wanek, 1973). A natural, un-compacted snowpack greater than 45 cm deep will prevent frost from penetrating the soil (Baker and Bithmann, 2005). However, the thermal conductivity of snow, when compacted by snowmobiles, is greatly increased, resulting in both greater temperature fluctuations and overall lower soil temperatures (Baker, and Bithmann, 2005). This in turn inhibits soil bacteria that play a critical role in the plant food cycle (Stangl, 1999).Thus the growth and reproductive success of early spring flowers is retarded and reduced (Wanek, 1973). Packed snowmobile trails can also dilute important sunlight “cues” that filter down to subnivean plants and stimulate them to grow or reproduce (Canadian Wildlife Federation, 1998). Additionally, the timing of snowmelt determines the distribution of plant communities in subalpine zones, so delays in spring growth caused by snow compaction from snowmobiles can cause drastic changes in subalpine plant communities (Biodiversity Conservation Alliance, 2002). Snowmobile use can result in mortality, habitat loss, and harassment of wildlife (Boyle and Samson, 1985; Oliff et. al., 1999). While most animals are well adapted to survival in winter conditions, the season creates added stress to wildlife due to harsher climate and limited foraging opportunities (Reinhart, 1999). Deep snow can increase the metabolic cost of winter movements in ungulates up to five times normal levels (Parker et. al., 1984) at a time when ungulates are particularly stressed by forage scarcity and high metabolic demands. Disturbance and stress to wildlife from snowmobile activities during this highly vulnerable time is dyer. Studies of observable wildlife responses to snowmobiles have documented elevated heart rates, elevated glucocoritcoid stress levels, increased flight distance, habitat fragmentation as well as community and population disturbance (Baker and Bithmann, 2005). In addition to the direct physiological stress of snowmobiles, evidence suggests that popular winter trails can fragment habitat and wildlife populations. Winter trails through surrounding wilderness areas or other core areas create more “edge effect” (the negative influence of the periphery of a habitat on the interior conditions of a habitat) and thereby marginalize the vitality of some species (Baker and Bithmann, 2005). In addition to the edge effect of groomed winter trails, off-trail riding or cutting trails through forested areas can further increase edge effects and fragmentation of habitat (Biodiversity Conservation Alliance, 2002). Wildlife utilize compacted snowmobile trails. Creel (2002) observed both wolves and deer traveling on snowmobile trails. The continuous packed surface and excellent supportability for large animals make them desirable places for these animals to travel. Traveling on snowmobile trails greatly reduces the energy expenditure of deer and wolves, but greatly increases their risk of getting hit (Richens and Lavigne, 1978). It is suspected that predators such as coyotes utilize compacted snowmobile trails to access habitats that otherwise would be inaccessible (Buskirk et. al.,, 2000). This allows coyotes to compete directly with lynx resulting in potential adverse impacts to the viability of this threatened species (Biodiversity Conservation Alliance, 2002). It has been widely documented that snowmobile activity disturbs wintering ungulates through physiological stress (Canfield et. al., 1999) resulting in increased movements (Dorrance et. al., 1975; Eckstein et. al., 1979; Aune 1981, Freddy et. al., 1986; Colescott and Gillingham 1998) and higher energy expenditures (Canfield et. al., 1999). Noise produced by snowmobiles acts as a physiological stressor producing changes similar to those brought about by exposure to extreme heat, cold, or pain (EPA, 1971). During winter, when efficient energy expenditure is extremely important to an animal’s survival, an additional stressor such as noise can throw off an animal’s energy balance. Excessive noise is a serious threat to predator-prey relationships, mating, reproduction, raising young, and staking out territories (EPA, 1971). The flight response of ungulates to snowmobiles has been documented in a number of species (Aun, 1981; Hardy, 2001; Sevinhause and Tullar, 1976; and Freddy et. al., 1986). A study of mule deer in north-central Colorado displayed responses to snowmobiles that ranged from benign to panic. Some of the less overt responses include increased metabolism, lowered body weight, reduced fetus size, and a withdrawal from suitable habitat (Freddy et. al., 1986). A study conducted in Minnesota found that home range size, movement, and distance from radio-collared deer to the nearest trail increased with snowmobile activity (Dorrance et. al., 1975). Snowmobiles have been observed to displace elk from preferred habitat (Hardy, 2001; Freddy et. al., 1986). Researchers also found that stress hormones in elk living in Yellowstone National Park fluctuated weekly, rising and falling in direct correlation with snowmobile activity (Creel, 2002). In one study, researchers found that large ungulates are disturbed by snowmobiles at distances over 1,250 feet (Blue Water Network, 2002). Bridger-Teton Nation Forest provides winter habitat for multiple ungulates including; elk, mule deer, moose, bighorn sheep, and mountain goats. Both mule deer and bighorn sheep occupy a variety of seasonal ranges. In winter, mule deer and bighorn sheep use lower elevation open, grassy benches and slopes (WG&FD 2003). The Bridger-Teton closes large areas of critical deer and bighorn sheep habitat to winter recreation. In the areas with these closures, conflicts with snowmobiles are low. In areas inhabited by wintering deer and big horn sheep, and open to the snowmobiles, adverse impacts are probable. In the Snake River Range, on the western boundary of the Bridger-Teton National Forest, resides an introduced population of mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus). In Montana, a decrease in a mountain goat population and reproduction is attributed to an increase in snowmobile use (Koeth, 2008). While little is known regarding the impact of snowmobiling on mountain goats in the Bridger-Teton, it is important to note that the majority of their habitat is within the Palisades Wilderness Study Area. According to the 1984 Wyoming Wilderness Act, snowmobiling can continue in the same manner and degree as it was in 1984 (U.S. Congress, 1984). Currently the level of snowmobiling in the region far exceeds the manner and degree of 1984. In regard to snowmobiles, unfortunately, the Bridger-Teton has taken no productive steps to enforce the 1984 Wilderness Act and the resulting impact to the mountain goat population is unknown. Moose generally winter in willow and deciduous habitats adjacent to conifer stands at elevations where the snowpack is shallower and mobility is greater. Conflicts with winter recreation continue to increase moose habitat fragmentation and decrease moose habitat effectiveness (Colescott and Gillingham, 1998; WG&FD, 2003). Moose also inhabit many of the drainages within the Palisades WSA and are likely adversely impacted by the illegal increase in snowmobile activity there. The National Elk Refuge and state-run elk feed grounds are closed to winter recreation. These feeding programs and accompanying winter closures significantly reduce snowmobile conflicts with elk. However, due to infectious diseases like Chronic Wasting Disease and Brucellosis the future of these feed grounds is uncertain. If the elk feeding program is significantly reduced, or even phased out completely, wintering elk will be more distributed throughout the lower elevations of the forest and snowmobile conflicts can be expected. In 2000, Canadian lynx (Lynx canadensis), was listed as a Threatened Species under the Endangered Species Act in the lower 48 states. In Wyoming, records indicate a reduction in abundance between the early 1970s and 1996 throughout the species’ historic range (Laurion and Oakleaf, 1998). Surveys completed specifically for lynx document a continued decline from 1996 through 2002 (WG&FD, 2003). More recent research by Smith et. a l., (2006) found evidence of a resident population within the Bridger-Teton National Forest. According to the USF&WS (2008), the majority of the Bridger-Teton National Forest is critical lynx habitat. Lynx habitat in the Bridger-Teton occurs in areas that receive the greatest pressure from increased snowmobile use (WG&FD, 2003). Snowmobile trails give coyotes access to lynx habitats that they never had before (Biodiversity Conservation Alliance, 2002). Buskirk (2000) states that the use of snowmobile trails by coyotes provides access to high elevation forests with deep snow not ordinarily accessible to them. Furthermore, coyotes aggressively compete with, or prey upon, a number of different vertebrate species, including Canadian lynx, that are adapted and limited to deep snow (Buskirk et. al., 2000). It is interesting to note the corresponding time lines of an increase in snowmobile activity and the decline in the lynx population in the Bridger-Teton. While several petitions to protect wolverines (Gulo gulo) under the federal Endangered Species Act have been filed in recent years, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has so far decided against all listing attempts. The Wyoming Game and Fish Department classifies the wolverine as a Species of Special Concern with a Native Species Status of 3 (NSS3) because its populations are restricted in numbers; its habitat is vulnerable, and it may be sensitive to human disturbance (WG&FD, 2003). Wolverines are known to inhabit the Bridger-Teton (WCS, 2007 and WG&FD, 2003). Wolverines occur naturally in low densities and are believed to be territorial (WCS, 2007). Wolverine parturition primarily occurs mid-winter during the month of February (WCS, 2007). Six of the seven natal dens located in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem by the Wildlife Conservation Society (2007) were in areas without motorized use, i.e., designated wilderness, areas inaccessible by vehicle, or national park. Other wolverine biologists have suggested refuge from human activity is important for wolverine reproduction (Banci, 1994; Magoun and Copland, 1998). It is possible winter recreation in remote mountain areas may displace wolverines from denning habitat (WG&FD, 2005). By the 1930’s, the Rocky Mountain gray wolf (Canis lupis) was completely exterminated from the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Listed as an endangered species in 1973, gray wolves were re-introduced to Yellowstone National park in 1995. Thirteen years later, gray wolves have established breeding packs in much of the Bridger-Teton. Gray wolves are currently in the process of being delisted as an endangered species. Snowmobiling has been shown to cause stress in wolves. In Minnesota a relatively new research technique, fecal analysis, was used to compare the hormone levels of wolves in Isle Royale, where there are no snowmobiles, to those of wolves in Voyageurs, where snowmobiling is pervasive. The Voyageurs wolves consistently exhibited higher levels of stress hormones (Creel, 2002). In addition, the scientists noted another direct relationship between snowmobiles and stress. When snowmobile use tumbled 37 percent in Voyageurs between the winters of 1999 and 2000, fecal stress hormone levels also dropped in the park's wolf population by 37 percent (Creel, 2002). Loss of habitat and high mortality rates resulting from conflicts with humans led to the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) being listed as a threatened species in 1975. The Yellowstone population of grizzly bears has increased from a low of approximately 200 bears in the late 1960s to over 600 today. In 2007, grizzly bears were determined to have recovered and therefore removed from the endangered species list. In the Greater Yellowstone area, grizzly bears are currently restricted to higher elevation habitats in northwestern Wyoming, southern Montana, and eastern Idaho. Roughly the northern third of the Bridger-Teton National Forest is part of the Grizzly Bear Recovery Zone. Grizzly Bears are very sensitive to human disturbances (WG&FD, 2003). Even though grizzlies den during the winter, indirect impacts of snowmobiles may reduce the amount of food sources (mainly carrion) on which grizzly are dependent during their crucial feeding time after den emergence (Knight et. al., 1984; Mattson, 1997). The lack of access to carrion potentially results in reduced bear productivity and survival. Some small mammal species depend on the space between the frozen ground and the snow to live. When snow compaction from snowmobiles occurs, the subnivean (below snow) space temperatures decrease, which can lead to increased metabolic rates in these small mammal species. If the subnivean air space is cooled by as little as 3 degrees Celsius, the metabolic demands of small mammals living in the space would increase by about 25 calories per hour (Neumann and Merriam, 1972). Compaction can also create barriers that restrict movement of these small species that travel through tunnels in the subnivean space. As the subnivean trails are cut off these small mammals are forced up to the surface where they are venerable to predation (Canadian Wildlife Federation, 1998). Compaction can also restrict subnivian mammal movement to the point of causing asphyxiation, as oxygen flow is restricted and carbon dioxide builds up to deadly levels (Canadian Wildlife Federation, 1998). Jarvinen and Schmid (1971) determined through controlled experiments that compaction due to snowmobile use reduced rodent and shrew use of subnivean habitats to near zero, and attributed this decline to direct mortality, not outmigration. The only trout native to the Green and Little Snake river drainages is the Colorado River cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki pleuriticus). Genetically pure populations of this trout are relegated to isolated headwaters of small tributaries in the Wyoming Range (WG&FD, 2003). Farther west, Bonneville cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki utah) had been considered extinct until populations were found in the late 1900s in western Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada (WG&FD, 2003). Another subspecies, Snake River cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki behnkei), thrive in lakes, reservoirs and large rivers, although it’s native habitat is the upper Snake River, Greys, and Salt rivers (WG&FD, 2003). During the last century, changes in the hydrographs of local rivers and streams along with the introduction of non-native brook trout has resulted in significant declines in the populations of these native cutthroat trout (WG&FD, 2003). Fish can be directly impacted by snowmobile traffic across ice. Snowmobiles riding on top of ice can disturb fish concentrations in over-wintering areas. These disturbances place high energy demands on fish, and could be quite serious in oxygen depleted water (NPS, 2003). In addition to the direct mechanical impacts of snowmobiles on fisheries, the pollution associated with snowmobile emissions has been shown to degrade water quality and adversely impact fish (NPS, 2003; Ruzycki and Lutch, 1999). A study by Ruzycki and Lutch (1999) used captive brook trout to determine effects of snowmobile emissions on fish. The exhaust components taken up by the fish correlated with the levels present in the environment due to snowmobile use. The uptake of hydrocarbons occurs through the gills during respiration. Hydrocarbons initially rest on the surface of the water, but eventually sink, potentially impacting invertebrate and fish species, also accumulating in sediments. Hydrocarbons are incorporated into fatty tissues in a similar way to chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (Ruzycki and Lutch, 1999). Even at extremely low levels of hydrocarbon pollution fish may experience chromosome damage, retarded growth, disruption of normal biological functions, and death (Ruzycki and Lutch, 1999). And finally, stamina (measured by the ability to swim against the current), was significantly diminished in trout exposed to snowmobile emissions than in control fish (Trochta, 1999). Impacts of snowmobiling include the degradation of both air and water quality. A snowmobile emits 95 times more pollution than an automobile (EPA, 2002). Snowmobile emissions are especially alarming if one considers two-stroke snowmobile engines. Two-stroke snowmobiles account for the majority of snowmobiles used in the Bridger-Teton National Forest. A two-stroke snowmobile can emit as much hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides as 100 cars and create up to 1,000 times more carbon monoxide (Blue Water Network, 2002). The incomplete fuel combustion of two-stroke snowmobile engines results in up to one-third of the fuel being unburned and emitted out the tail-pipe (Blue Water Network, 2002). A 2001 survey of snowmobilers in Wyoming revealed that on average snowmobilers use over 11 gallons of fuel per visit (McCanlus, 2001). There are an estimated 340,200 annual snowmobile visits to the Bridger Teton National Forest (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). Hence, each winter snowmobiles discharge over one million gallons of unburned fuel into the Bridger-Teton National Forest. Toxic pollutants emitted by snowmobiles include ammonium, nitrate, sulfate, benzene, toluene, exylenes, aldehydes, 3-butadiene, and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (EPA, 1993; Ingersol, 1998). All are believed to cause deleterious health effects in humans and animals (EPA, 1993). Benzene, toluene, and xylenes are known carcinogens (Baker and Bithmann, 2005). Excessive exposure to toluene may impair hearing and cause damage to the brain and unborn child, while benzene causes damage to the brain, eyes, lungs, and skin. Excessive exposure to xylene isomers can cause damage to the brain, eyes, lungs, kidney, liver, skin, nose, reproductive system, digestive system, and throat, with similar effects in unborn children (European Pollutant Emission Register, 2000). Winter recreationists are especially at risk because the concentration of these emissions increases with elevation and cold (Janssen, 2003). Pollutants from snowmobile emission, including the highly persistent PAHs, are stored within the snowpack (Ingersoll, 1998). During spring snowmelt, these accumulated pollutants are released causing elevated acidity levels in surrounding waterways and resulting in higher death rates for aquatic insects and amphibians (Charette, 1990). The impact of the spring release of pollutants may have far-reaching consequences for surrounding watersheds. Acidity fluctuations can disable a watershed's ability to regulate its own pH level, which could trigger system-wide problems and result in a long-term alteration of an entire ecosystem (Shaver et. al.,, 1998). The EPA has adopted emission standards for new machines. Unfortunately, several factors serve to reduce their impact and even trivialize them. The standards adopted do not eliminate noxious emissions but only reduce the amount of CO and HC emissions by 50 percent (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). Further, manufacturers have until 2012 to bring their fleets into compliance and they may meet the standards by using “fleet averaging,” which means that each manufacturer’s production fleet would only have to, on average, meet these emission reductions (NPS, 2000). Some of the models may continue to exceed the standard as long as other models beat the standard. High powered mountain, powder, and hill-climbing snowmobiles – those used in the backcountry–will surely exceed the emissions standard (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). Additionally, the standard only applies to stock models. Since the aftermarket parts sales are such an important part of a retailer’s revenue, it can be expected that many machines will be retrofitted, escaping the standards altogether (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). Finally, all existing snowmobiles are grandfathered into the EPA regulation. In 2007, the US Supreme Court ruled that carbon dioxide (CO2) is a pollutant and that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has the right to regulate CO2 emissions from motor vehicles (Greenhouse, 2007). After the Supreme Court’s ruling that carbon dioxide emissions are “air pollutants” under the Clean Air Act, states have begun to assert independent authority to require consideration of climate change in environmental impact assessments (Grant and Webber, 2007). The carbon dioxide emitted by snowmobiles needs to be considered in Winter Travel Plans.
Natural
soundscapes are intrinsic elements of the environment and are necessary
for natural ecological functioning (Burson, 2008). Noise from
snowmobiles severely affects the winter soundscape and impacts both
wildlife and other visitors. Aftermarket modifications to snowmobiles continue to defeat reductions in noise. This practice is popular and is in part driven by market forces. As explained in an article in “Snowmobile Online” by Jerry Mathews, of Starting Line Products, “in the past, aftermarket systems have typically increased the noise level somewhat (in some cases immensely), as well as boosted the power (Mathews, 2002). This practice has been widely accepted and wasn’t a large problem until just recently because these sleds were mostly used for racing, not pleasure riding. With more and more snowmobilers modifying their sleds and using them strictly for pleasure riding, it makes noise level enforcement difficult (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). Conflicts with Other Recreationists Until the 1990s, there was little conflict between motorized and non-motorized winter recreationists. Before that time, motorized use was generally restricted to packed trails and roads as early snowmobiles would easily become bogged down in deep snow. Skiers and snowshoers wishing to avoid motorized impacts could go off-trail to areas unreachable by snowmobile. Since the mid-1990s, technological advances in snowmobiles have dramatically altered winter use of the Bridger-Teton National Forest. Improvements in horsepower, weight, traction, and fuel tank capacities enable snowmobiles to access places previously reachable only by backcountry skiers or snowshoers (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). Snowmobiles are incompatible with other forms of winter recreation such snowshoeing, cross-country skiing, wildlife observation, and hiking (Blue Water Network, 1999). Non-motorized winter recreationists report that the noise and smell of snowmobiles greatly reduces their level of enjoyment in the peaceful winter environment (Vitterso, et. all, 2004). The high speed of snowmobiles presents the danger of collision with slower cross-country skiers and snowshoers (Blue Water Network, 1999). Many skiers report that snowmobiles ruin ski trails (Baker and Bithmann, 2005). The disparity in opportunities for snowmobiles versus cross-country skiers and snowshoers is large within the Bridger-Teton National Forest. Although the Bridger-Teton has the highest percentage of cross-country skiers and snowshoers in Wyoming, its ratio of users per mile is the most disparate. Only 44 miles of groomed non-motorized trails exist for an estimated 213,000 skier and snowshoer visits. On the other hand, snowmobilers enjoy 565 miles of groomed trails on that forest (include how many snowmobilers are figured in the calculation). These figures translate to a density of 4,848 skier and snowshoer visits per non-motorized mile versus 602 snowmobile visits per motorized mile (Rivers and Menlove, 2006). A Winter Travel Plan for the Bridger-Teton National Forest should consider and incorporate the requirements of multiple federal laws, including: Executive Orders 11644 and 11989, the National Environmental Policy Act, the Endangered Species Act, the Clean Air Act, the Wyoming Wilderness Act, and the Roadless Area Conservation Rule. Educative Orders 11644 and 11989 Executive Order 11644, signed by President Nixon in 1972, and its amendment, Executive Order 11989, signed by Nixon in1975, requires the Forest Service “to establish policies and provide for procedures that will ensure that the use of off-road vehicles on public lands will be controlled and directed so as to protect the resources of those lands, to promote the safety of all users of those lands, and to minimize conflicts among the various uses of those lands.” The order continues, stating that, “areas and trails shall be located to minimize conflicts between off-road vehicle use and other existing or proposed recreational uses of the same or neighboring public lands, and to ensure the compatibility of such uses with existing conditions in populated areas, taking into account noise and other factors” (Nixon, 1972). Furthermore, Section 2 of the Executive Order clearly implies that snowmobiles are to be included by defining an "off-road vehicle" as any motorized vehicle designed for, or capable of, cross-country travel on or immediately over land, water, sand, snow, ice, marsh, swampland, or other natural terrain (Nixon, 1972). In regard to snowmobiles, current Winter Travel plans on the Bridger-Teton are inadequate in addressing both resource protection and conflicts with other recreational users. As discussed earlier, snowmobiles are causing soil and vegetation damage, adversely effecting wildlife, and generating unacceptable levels of air, water, and noise pollution. Nor are existing Winter Travel plans minimizing conflicts with other existing or proposed recreational uses. National Environmental Policy Act The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is a United States environmental law that was signed on January 1, 1970 by U.S. President Richard Nixon. The law established a U.S. national policy promoting the enhancement of the environment and also established the President's Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). NEPA establishes procedural requirements for all federal government agencies to prepare Environmental Assessments (EAs) and Environmental Impact Statements (EISs). EAs and EISs contain statements of the environmental effects of proposed federal agency actions. NEPA’s procedural requirements apply to all federal agencies in the executive branch including the U.S. Forest Service. Before implementing any "major" or "significant" or "federal" action, the Bridger-Teton must consider the environmental impacts of that action, identify unavoidable environmental impacts and make this information available to the public in the EIS. An EIS must include descriptions of: the environmental impacts of the proposed action; any unavoidable adverse environmental impacts; alternatives, including no action; the relationship between short term uses of the environment and maintenance of long-term ecological productivity irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources; and secondary/cumulative effects of implementing the proposed action. Winter Travel Plans are federal actions that require Environmental Impact Statements. The EIS of a Winter Travel Plan is legally required to provide descriptions of adverse environmental impacts along with alternative actions. Environmental impacts from snomobiling include: soil and vegetation damage; fish and wildlife disturbance; and air, water, and noise pollution. These impacts need to be considered in Winter Travel plans and their associated Environmental Impact Statements. On the Bridger-Teton National Forest, current Winter Travel Plans and their associated Environmental Impact Statements do not adequately address the known adverse environmental impacts from snowmobiles. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 or ESA is the most wide-ranging of the dozens of United States environmental laws passed in the 1970s. As stated in section 2 of the act, it was designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of economic growth and development untendered by adequate concern and conservation." The stated purpose of the Endangered Species Act is to protect species and also "the ecosystems upon which they depend"(USDI, 1973). As habitat loss is the primary threat to most imperiled species, the original ESA of 1973 allowed the FWS and NOAA Fisheries to designate specific areas as protected "critical habitat" zones. In 1978, Congress amended the ESA to require designation for all threatened and endangered species except those which might be harmed by the publication of such maps. Congress indicated that the exception should rarely be invoked. Critical habitats are required to contain "all areas essential to the conservation" of the target species (Section 3(5) (A)). Species currently listed under the Endangered Species Act within the Bridger-Teton, and relevant to Winter Travel Plans, include Canadian lynx (threatened) and the Rocky Mountain grey wolf (endangered). Until recently, grizzly bears were listed as threatened and should be considered. Additionally, wolverine, sage grouse, and white bark pine have all recently been petitioned for protection under the Endangered Species Act and should be accounted for in Winter Travel Plans.
The
United States
federal government has enacted a series of air quality acts,
beginning with the
Air Pollution
Control Act of 1955, and followed by the
Clean Air Act of
1963, the
Air Quality Act
of 1967, the
Clean Air Act
Extension of 1970, and Clean Air Act Amendments in 1977 and
1990. These
acts
require the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to set
National Ambient
Air Quality Standards for pollutants considered harmful to
public health and the environment. Air quality standards for snowmobile
emissions include carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC),
particulate matter (PM), and oxides of nitrogen (NO). As previously
discussed, snowmobiles produce significant emissions including CO, HC,
PM, and NO (Morris et. al., 1999). In heavily traveled areas of
the Bridger-Teton, snowmobile emissions likely exceed National Ambient
Air Quality Standards. In 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that carbon dioxide (CO2) is an “air pollutant” under the Clean Air Act and that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) can regulate CO2 emissions from motor vehicles (Greenhouse, 2007). Since then, states also have begun to assert independent authority to require consideration of climate change in environmental impact assessments (Grant and Webber, 2007). Future compliance to the Clean Air Act and NEPA will likely require consideration of carbon dioxide emitted by snowmobiles. Title III of the 1984 Wyoming Wilderness Act established the Palisades (135,840 acres) and the Shoal Creek (30,000 acres) Wilderness Study Areas (Section 301.C). “Subject to valid existing rights and reasonable access to exercise such rights, until Congress determines otherwise, The Palisades, High Lakes, and Shoal Creek Wilderness Study Areas shall be administered by the Secretary of Agriculture so as to maintain their presently existing wilderness character and potential for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System: Provided….(4) within the Palisades, High Lakes and Shoal Creek Wilderness Study Areas, snowmobiling shall continue to be allowed in the same manner and degree as was occurring prior to the date of enactment of this act” (U.S. Congress, 1984). Under the current Bridger-Teton Winter Travel Plans, both the Shoal Creek and Palisades Wilderness Study Areas are open to unrestricted snowmobile riding. The 1984 Wyoming Wilderness Act allows snowmobiling, but only in the “manner and degree as was occurring prior to {1984}” (U.S. Congress, 1984). However, changes in snowmobile technology, increased popularity, and additional winter parking have resulted in snowmobile activity that far exceeds the “manner and degree” that was occurring in the Shoal Creek and Palisades WSAs prior to 1984. This increase in snowmobile activity and its associated impacts conflict with the Wyoming Wilderness Acts mandate “to maintain their presently existing wilderness character...,” (U.S. Congress, 1984). Roadless Area Conservation Rule On January 12, 2001, after nearly three years of analysis, the U.S. Forest Service adopted the Roadless Area Conservation Rule. The Bridger-Teton Nation Forest contains 1,430,593 acres of inventoried roadless areas that are protected under the Roadless Area Conservation Rule. It can be argued that many of the groomed winter snowmobile trails that enter inventoried roadless areas of Bridger-Teton are in fact winter roads and therefore violate the Roadless Conservation Rule. As a result of advances in technology and increasing popularity, snowmobiling use in the Bridger-Teton National Forest is growing at an alarming rate. The impact to wildlife, fish, vegetation, soil, water, air quality, and other recreations is substantial. It is critical that the Bridger-Teton National Forest become informed about the impacts and pertinent federal laws and devise a Winter Travel Plan that will protect the ecological health of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, its inhabitants, and its visitors.
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